Chapter 6 International Organisations

This chapter examines the significance and role of international organizations, particularly the United Nations (UN), in the global landscape that emerged after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union. In this new world order, characterized by the rise of US dominance, there were calls for international organizations to be reformed and restructured to address contemporary challenges.

The potential reform of the UN Security Council is analyzed as a key example of the complexities involved in such processes. The chapter also looks into India's engagement with the UN and its perspective on Security Council reforms. Finally, it considers the capacity of the UN to function effectively and play a meaningful role in a world dominated by a single superpower. Additionally, the chapter introduces other important transnational organizations.

The UN emblem, featuring a world map framed by olive branches, symbolizes the organization's commitment to global peace.

Why International Organisations?

International organizations, such as the United Nations (UN), often face criticism for their perceived ineffectiveness in managing global crises, as illustrated by cartoons commenting on the UN's role in the 2006 Lebanon crisis.

These cartoons reflect public frustration and criticism regarding the UN's delayed or limited response to humanitarian crises and conflicts.

Despite such criticisms, the UN is widely considered the most vital international organization today, representing global hope for peace and progress. The need for such organizations can be understood through perspectives like those of former UN officials:

• Dag Hammarskjold: The UN's purpose is to prevent the worst outcomes ('save humanity from hell'), not necessarily to achieve utopian goals.
• Shashi Tharoor: The UN, while a 'talking shop', serves a crucial function by providing a forum for dialogue and discussion ('jaw-jaw is better than war-war'), which helps prevent conflicts from escalating into violence.

These insights highlight that international organizations are not perfect solutions but are essential tools.

International organizations play a crucial role in addressing issues of **war and peace**. They provide platforms for countries to discuss disagreements and find peaceful solutions, recognizing that resorting to war is not the only or best way to manage antagonism. Most conflicts are resolved without military engagement, and international organizations facilitate this by offering mechanisms for dialogue and negotiation.

Furthermore, these organizations are vital for fostering cooperation on global challenges that no single nation can tackle alone. Examples include:

• Combating **diseases** that require coordinated global vaccination or eradication efforts.
• Addressing **global warming** and its effects (like rising sea levels), which necessitate international cooperation, especially among major industrial powers, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

While recognizing the need for cooperation is important, actual cooperation is challenging. Nations often struggle to agree on the methods, cost-sharing, distribution of benefits, and ensuring compliance with agreements. International organizations help by:

• Generating information and ideas on how to cooperate effectively.
• Providing established mechanisms, rules, and administrative structures that build trust among members, making them more confident that costs and benefits will be fairly managed and commitments will be honored.

With the end of the Cold War and the US emerging as the dominant power, a new dynamic arose. Concerns grew that the US and its allies could act without constraint. The UN's role in this unipolar world became a subject of debate: could it promote dialogue with the US and serve as a check on its power? This question is explored later in the chapter.

Information about the International Monetary Fund (IMF):

The **International Monetary Fund (IMF)** is a global financial institution that oversees international financial systems and regulations. As of April 2016, it had 189 member countries, but voting power is unequal, heavily weighted towards major economies. The G-7 nations (US, Japan, Germany, France, UK, Italy, Canada) collectively hold a significant percentage of votes, giving them substantial influence. Other major members like China, India, Russia, Brazil, and Saudi Arabia also hold significant, though smaller, voting shares. The IMF is often criticized for imposing policies on developing countries and attaching stringent conditions to loans.

Evolution Of The Un

The devastating First World War highlighted the need for an international body to prevent future global conflicts, leading to the creation of the **League of Nations**. However, the League ultimately failed to prevent the Second World War (1939-1945), which caused unprecedented loss of life and destruction.

The **United Nations (UN)** was established in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations, immediately after WWII. Its founding document, the United Nations Charter, was initially signed by 51 states. The UN aimed to achieve what the League could not: preventing international conflict, maintaining peace and security, limiting hostilities if war broke out, and promoting global social and economic development to address root causes of conflict.

Key milestones in the founding of the UN:

This US Office of War Information poster from WWII, featuring the flags of Allied nations, reflects the wartime origins of the UN and the collective effort against the Axis Powers.

By 2011, the UN had grown to include 193 member states, encompassing nearly all independent countries. The main structure and functioning of the UN are as follows:

• General Assembly: The main deliberative body where all member states have equal representation with one vote each.
• Security Council: Responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It has **five permanent members** (the United States, Russia - as successor to the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, and China). These were the most powerful victors of WWII. There are also **ten non-permanent members** elected for two-year terms, representing different global regions.
• Secretary-General: The chief administrative officer and most visible public figure of the UN. The current Secretary-General is António Guterres (since Jan 1, 2017), a former Prime Minister of Portugal.

The UN system includes numerous specialized structures and agencies addressing various global issues:

• War and peace issues are debated in the General Assembly and Security Council.
• Social and economic development, health, education, human rights, environmental protection, and humanitarian aid are handled by agencies such as the World Health Organisation (WHO), UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC), UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).

This diagram illustrates the complex structure of the United Nations system, including its principal organs and specialized agencies working on various global issues.

Reform Of The Un After The Cold War

Like any organization, the UN needs to reform and adapt to remain relevant in a changing world. Following the end of the Cold War, demands for reforming the UN intensified. However, there is a lack of consensus on the specific nature and scope of these reforms.

UN reform proposals generally fall into two main categories:

1. **Reform of Structures and Processes:** This focuses on changing how the UN is organized and operates, particularly regarding its main organs like the Security Council.
2. **Review of Jurisdiction and Issues:** This involves re-evaluating the issues the UN should prioritize or bring within its mandate (e.g., focusing more on peace and security vs. development and humanitarian work).

While there's broad agreement that both types of reform are needed, member states disagree sharply on the details, methods, and timing.

The call for reform was driven by significant changes in global politics after the Cold War, which rendered the 1945 structure less reflective of contemporary realities:

• The collapse of the Soviet Union.
• The rise of the United States as the sole superpower.
• Improved relations between Russia (the USSR's successor) and the US.
• The rapid economic growth and emergence of new powers like China and India.
• Unprecedented economic dynamism in Asia.
• Increase in UN membership due to the independence of former Soviet republics and East European states.
• Emergence of new global challenges such as genocide, civil wars, ethnic conflicts, terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, environmental degradation, and epidemics.

Against this backdrop, the question arose in 1989: Is the UN adequately equipped to handle these new realities and challenges? What reforms are necessary for it to operate more effectively? Member states have been debating these questions for decades, seeking practical solutions.

UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon launching the UN's 70th Anniversary celebrations in New Delhi highlights the organization's ongoing activities and global presence, even as discussions about its future and reforms continue.

Reform Of Structures And Processes

The debate over reforming the UN's structure and processes is particularly contentious, with the functioning and composition of the **Security Council** being the central focus. In 1992, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution reflecting key criticisms:

• The Security Council's composition no longer accurately represents contemporary global political realities.
• Its decisions are perceived as reflecting primarily Western values and interests, dominated by a few powerful states.
• It suffers from a lack of equitable representation for diverse regions and nations.

Following these calls for restructuring, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry in 1997 into how the UN should be reformed, including criteria for selecting new Security Council members. Proposed criteria for new permanent and non-permanent members have included:

• Being a major economic power.
• Being a major military power.
• Being a significant financial contributor to the UN budget.
• Having a large population.
• Demonstrating respect for democracy and human rights.
• Contributing to the Council's representativeness in terms of geography, economic systems, and culture.

Each criterion has some merit, but applying them is complex and controversial, as governments favor or oppose criteria based on their interests and aspirations. Questions arise about defining "major" power, the link between financial contribution and membership, whether a large population is an asset, the effectiveness of members chosen purely for human rights records, and how to ensure equitable geographical, economic, or cultural representation.

Information about the World Bank:

The **World Bank**, created in 1944 during WWII, primarily focuses its activities on developing countries. It aims to support human development, agriculture, environmental protection, infrastructure, and governance through loans and grants. It holds significant influence over the economic policies of developing nations but is often criticized for imposing free market reforms and stringent conditions on its loans.

Contribution percentages to the UN regular budget highlight the financial disparities among member states, which influences discussions about power and representation within the organization, particularly in the Security Council.

A fundamental aspect of Security Council reform involves the **veto power**. The Security Council has five permanent members (P5) and ten non-permanent members. The P5 were granted permanent seats and the veto power to ensure their commitment and facilitate global stability after WWII. Non-permanent members are elected for two-year terms without immediate re-election and do not possess the veto.

The **veto power** means that any one of the five permanent members can block a Security Council decision, even if all other members (P5 and non-permanent) vote in favor. Decisions require the affirmative vote of nine members, including the concurring votes of the permanent members. A negative vote by any P5 member constitutes a veto.

While there are calls to abolish or modify the veto system, seen by many as undemocratic and contrary to sovereign equality, this reform is highly unlikely to be accepted by the current P5. Moreover, some argue that despite the end of the Cold War, the world still needs the engagement of major powers. Without the veto, the P5 might lose interest in the UN, act unilaterally, and render the organization ineffective due to lack of their support and involvement.

Jurisdiction Of The Un

Beyond the structural reforms, particularly of the Security Council, there are also substantive questions about the UN's role and the issues it should prioritize. As the UN marked its 60th anniversary in 2005, a summit of member state heads agreed on several steps to enhance the organization's relevance:

• Establishing a **Peacebuilding Commission** to help countries transition from conflict to peace.
• Endorsing the concept of the **Responsibility to Protect (R2P)**, asserting the international community's role if national governments fail to protect their populations from atrocities.
• Creating a **Human Rights Council** (operational since 2006) to promote and protect human rights globally.
• Committing to achieving the **Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)**, a set of targets for addressing poverty and other global challenges (succeeded by Sustainable Development Goals - SDGs).
• Issuing a clear **condemnation of terrorism** in all its forms.
• Creating a **Democracy Fund** to support democratic transitions and institutions.
• Agreeing to wind up the **Trusteeship Council** as its decolonization mandate had been fulfilled.

Information about the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

The **Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)** are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030. They are part of UN Resolution 70/1, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals address global challenges including poverty, hunger, health, education, climate change, clean energy, inequality, peace, and justice.

Implementing these agreed steps presents significant challenges and contentious issues: Deciding where and when the Peacebuilding Commission should intervene among numerous global conflicts is complex. Determining the scope of international responsibility for protecting populations from atrocities and agreeing on what constitutes a human rights violation and the appropriate response are difficult questions. Achieving ambitious global development goals like the SDGs requires immense effort and resources, especially in the developing world. Defining terrorism in a universally accepted manner and agreeing on criteria for using funds to promote democracy are also areas of disagreement.

This cartoon highlights the gap between international community promises and the reality of the humanitarian crisis in Darfur, Sudan, suggesting that verbal commitments have not translated into effective action. It raises questions about the UN's capacity and mandate to intervene in such complex situations.

India And The Un Reforms

India has been a strong advocate for the restructuring of the UN, believing that a reformed and revitalized organization is essential in the contemporary world. India supports an expanded role for the UN, particularly emphasizing **development and cooperation** as crucial preconditions for global peace and security, arguing that these issues should be central to the UN's agenda.

A key concern for India is the unrepresentative nature of the **Security Council's composition**. While the overall UN membership has grown dramatically, the Security Council's permanent membership has remained unchanged since 1945, and non-permanent membership was only slightly expanded in 1965 (from 11 to 15 total members). India argues that this static structure does not reflect current political realities and undermines the Council's representative character and legitimacy. With the majority of UN members now being developing countries, India asserts that they should have a greater role in Security Council decisions that affect them.

India supports an increase in both **permanent and non-permanent members** of the Security Council. It argues that the Council's increasing responsibilities require broader international support, which would be enhanced by including more developing countries in its membership.

India itself aspires to become a **permanent member** of a restructured UN Security Council. Its claim is based on several factors:

• India is the world's largest democracy and the second most populous country (around one-fifth of the global population).
• It has consistently participated in UN initiatives and has a long, significant history of contributing to UN peacekeeping operations.
• India's growing economic power on the global stage strengthens its claim.
• India has made regular financial contributions to the UN without default.

Permanent membership is also seen by India as having symbolic importance, signifying its rising status in world affairs and potentially enhancing its influence in foreign policy matters.

Despite India's strong bid, its path to permanent membership faces challenges and objections from various countries. Apart from Pakistan, which has troubled relations with India, other countries raise concerns:

• Some are apprehensive about India's **nuclear weapons capabilities**.
• Others believe India's ongoing difficulties with Pakistan might hinder its effectiveness as a permanent member.
• There are concerns that admitting India would necessitate including other emerging powers like Brazil, Germany, and Japan, which some existing members or aspirants oppose.
• Many argue that any expansion of permanent membership must include representation from Africa and South America, which currently lack permanent seats.

Given these complexities and competing claims, India's entry into the permanent membership of the Security Council in the near future appears challenging.

Information about the World Trade Organization (WTO):

The **World Trade Organization (WTO)**, established in 1995, is the successor to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT, created after WWII). It sets the rules for global trade and had 164 members as of July 2016. While decisions are nominally made by consensus, major economic powers like the US, EU, and Japan often exert significant influence to shape rules in their favor. Developing countries frequently complain about non-transparent procedures and feeling pressured by larger powers.

The Un In A Unipolar World

A key concern surrounding UN reform is how it can effectively operate and cope in a unipolar world dominated by the United States, which lacks a major rival after the Soviet Union's collapse. Can the UN serve as a counterweight or balance against US power? Can it facilitate dialogue between the US and the rest of the world and prevent the US from acting unilaterally?

Checking US power within the current international system is difficult for several reasons:

• The US is the sole superpower, with unmatched military and economic capabilities that allow it to potentially disregard international organizations if it chooses.
• Within the UN itself, the US exercises considerable influence. As the largest financial contributor, it has significant leverage. The UN's headquarters being located on US territory also provides Washington with influence. Many US nationals are employed in the UN bureaucracy.
• Crucially, the US holds **veto power** in the Security Council, allowing it to block any resolution it deems against its interests or those of its allies. This power also gives the US a significant say in the selection of the UN Secretary-General. The US can use this influence to divide other nations and reduce opposition to its policies.

Information about the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):

The **International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)**, established in 1957 based on the US "Atoms for Peace" proposal, aims to promote the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and prevent its diversion for military purposes. IAEA inspection teams regularly visit nuclear facilities worldwide to verify that civilian nuclear programs are not being used for weapons development.

While the UN cannot act as a direct or significant counterbalance to the US superpower in a unipolar world, it still plays a vital role. It serves as a critical forum where the US and other nations can engage in dialogue on various global issues. Even US leaders, despite criticisms, recognize the UN's utility in bringing together nearly 200 nations to address conflict, development, and social issues.

For the rest of the world, the UN provides a space to voice concerns, challenge specific US policies, and potentially influence US attitudes through argument and debate. Although global unity against the US is rare and balancing US power is almost impossible, the UN enables the articulation of alternative viewpoints and can facilitate compromises and concessions.

Information about Amnesty International:

**Amnesty International** is a non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to campaigning for human rights protection globally. It promotes all rights listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and believes they are indivisible. Amnesty publishes reports on human rights situations, often highlighting government misconduct, which plays a key role in human rights research and advocacy despite sometimes being met with government resistance.

Information about Human Rights Watch:

**Human Rights Watch** is another prominent international NGO involved in researching and advocating for human rights. It is the largest international human rights organization based in the US. It draws global media attention to human rights abuses and has been instrumental in building international coalitions, such as campaigns to ban landmines, end the use of child soldiers, and establish the International Criminal Court.

Despite its imperfections and limitations, particularly in a unipolar world, the UN remains an indispensable organization. Without it, the world would likely be worse off. The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of societies and global issues highlight the need for a body that can coordinate efforts among billions of people. As technology further increases global interdependence, the importance of the UN and other international organizations is likely to grow. Therefore, people and governments must find ways to effectively support and utilize these organizations in alignment with both national interests and the broader interests of the international community.